Chapter1

1. Identify the origins of the word “psychology,” and the two disciplines that were the intellectual parents of psychology. (p. 3)
   
2. Summarize Wundt's accomplishments and contributions to the field of psychology. (pp. 3-4)
3. Define “structuralism” and “functionalism.” Compare these two concepts. Specify their impact on the development of psychology. Which of these did Darwin's theory of evolution impact the most? (pp. 4-6)
   
4. Define “introspectionism” as the structuralists would have used the term. (p. 5)
   Comment: One of the classical problems in psychology is the separation of the worlds outside our skin, which everyone can sense, and the world within our skin, to which only we as individuals normally have access. Introspectionism was an early attempt to address the problem of accessing the world of private experience. The structuralists sought to train observers who, in principle, would become skilled at making self-observations and would report these to the experimenters with whom they worked. The structuralists' method of introspectionism never caught on as a research strategy in psychology. Even so, introspectionism survives in a more general form as, for example, when a person is asked how they feel or what they are thinking.
   Despite the failure of introspectionism as a formal research method, some contemporary psychologists have pursued forms of introspectionism in its more general sense. For example, behavioural psychologist B. F. Skinner kept notebooks in which he would often record observations of his own thoughts and feelings (Skinner, 1980) as a way to understand his own behaviour. Many cognitive psychologists, including those who study mental imagery, observe their own actions of imagining mental images, and this influences their work. As such, introspectionism survives in certain forms as a kind of method, even in contemporary psychology.
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
5.  Who was William James? Describe his perspective on psychology and his contributions to psychology. (p. 5)
   
   
6. Who was John B. Watson? Describe Watson's outlook on and contributions to psychology. (pp. 6-7)
   
7. Define “Watsonian behaviourism. ” (p. 6)
   Comment: On page 6, Weiten and McCann (2007) define Watsonian behaviourism, but they fail to distinguish it from other forms of behaviourism. Note that Watsonian behaviourism is only one type of behaviourism. Other forms of behaviourism, such as that of B. F. Skinner, do consider unobservable actions, such as thinking, to be both (a) legitimate objects of scientific study, and (b) forms of behaviour. Be careful not to think that Watsonian behaviourism, which is now a kind of historical curiosity, represents all forms of behaviourism. This point is important because the two surviving forms of behaviourism —Skinnerian behaviourism and J. R. Kantor's interbehaviourism—accept the study of unobservable actions, such as thinking and feeling.
   
   Critical Thinking Comment: Note that the point of view in this Study Guide Guidediffers from that of Weiten and McCann (2007). One of the most valuable lessons a student can learn is that knowledge is often not as clear and concise as it appears when packaged in textbooks. Behind many definitions, concepts, and principles lies controversy and alternative interpretations. While you do need to learn Weiten and McCann's (2007) interpretations well, be sure to also note the alternative interpretations presented in this Study Guide. Learning multiple interpretations is more difficult than learning a single point of view, but doing so will help you become a more effective scientific and critical thinker.
   Science itself is a process in which different points of view and different interpretations conflict with one another. This process of conflict eventually yields a more effective outcome than any of the original conflicting points of view. Science is not a dogmatic enterprise in which natural phenomenon are irrevocably defined. Instead, it is a process of gradual change toward more effective means of dealing with and talking about natural phenomenon, which includes human behaviour.
   
8. Why did Watson propose that psychologists abandon the study of consciousness? (pp. 6-7)
   Comment: Weiten and McCann (2007) introduce the concept of “consciousness,” but they do not define it. Generally, people refer to the following when they speak of consciousness: (a) thinking verbally, as when we talk to ourselves; (b) thinking with images, as when we seem to see pictures in our mind of things that are not physically present; and (c) self-awareness, which is the ability to discriminate our bodies and our behaviour from the rest of our environment. Philosophers and psychologists have much to say about consciousness; however, this understanding is adequate for now.
   
9. Describe Watson's view of psychology, with special reference to the nature-nurture issue and animal research. (pp. 6-7)
   Comment: As Weiten and McCann (2007) indicate, Watson's views have often been portrayed as more extreme than they actually were. If you read Watson's books, you will certainly find a focus on the environment and its central role in influencing behaviour. However, you will also find extensive treatment of instincts, a concept that is no longer fashionable in psychology, but which refers to the innate or unlearned traits that organisms acquire through heredity.
   Since the 1980s, psychology has emphasized the contribution of hereditary factors in influencing behaviour. Recent indications suggest this trend may be changing. For example, a 2006 article in Scientific American (Ross, 2006) highlights the role of learning and practice in becoming adept at an activity—even playing chess, which many people assume is a hereditary gifting.
   
10. Define “behaviour.” (p. 6)
    Comment: Behaviour can be either observable (observablee.g., someone walking) or unobservable (e.g., someone watching from behind dark sunglasses). People think to themselves much of the time when they are otherwise not occupied, and these thoughts are a form of unobservable verbal behaviour. The world would be a difficult place if others could observe our thoughts, which is a theme explored in the film What Women Want (2000).
    
11. Define “stimulus.” According to Weiten and McCann (2007), what school of psychology eventually came to view psychology's mission as an attempt to relate overt behaviour (“responses”) to experiences or “stimuli” in the environment? (p. 6)
    
    Comment: Note that Weiten and McCann identify “the behavioural approach” with S-R psychology. This is not universally true. Although some behaviourists, including Watson, were centrally concerned with stimulus-response relationships, other behaviourists never followed this approach. Skinner, for example, emphasized the concept of contingency as the basic unit of analysis, not simple stimulus-response relationships.
12. Who was Sigmund Freud? Describe his main concepts, including the notion of the unconscious. What is psychoanalytic theory? (pp. 8-9)
    
13. Why did Freud's psychoanalytic theory encounter resistance within psychology? (pp. 8-9)
    Comment: Weiten and McCann (2007) emphasize how psychoanalytic theory was resisted by psychology. However, the main problem with psychoanalytic theory is that it did not lead to an effective means of treating people for psychological disorders. Freud's concepts and principles are interesting, and they have intrigued artists and writers for decades. As a therapy, however, psychoanalysis is expensive and its effectiveness has never been clearly documented.
    
14. Who was B. F. Skinner? Describe Skinner's viewpoint with regard to private events and free will. Describe the influence that Skinner had on psychology and more widely outside of academia. (pp. 9-10)
    Comment: Skinner had a keen interest in private, unobservable events, and he devoted a considerable portion of his writing to them. As stated earlier, Skinner frequently observed his own private behaviour and made notes about it. One of Skinner's goals was to develop an approach to behaviour that would allow for the understanding of people “from within.”
    Athabasca University has an online tutorial that is largely concerned with private events. The tutorial was written by Dr. Jay Moore, a former president of the Association for Behaviour Analysis and is available at: http://psych.athabascau.ca/html/Behaviourism/. This material is optional, but you may enjoy exploring the topic more closely.
    
15. When did behaviourism flourish within psychology? (p. 10)
    Comment: Behaviourism continues to flourish. Several behavioural journals are published regularly, and the Association for Behaviour Analysis (ABA) serves as a focal point for those in the field. You may wish to take a look at Athabasca University's Psychology Resources (AUPR) for other web materials related to the field of behaviour analysis. The discipline of behaviourism is full of vigorous activity.
    
16. What is humanism? What is humanistic psychology? Who were the founders of this movement, and what were their contributions? Why did some psychologists find humanistic psychology more appealing that other psychologies? (pp. 11-12)
    
17. What are the six major contemporary theoretical perspectives within psychology? Briefly explain each one. (p. 11, Table 1.2)
    
18. Describe the development of psychology in Canada. (pp. 12-13)
    
19. Define “applied psychology” and “clinical psychology.” Describe the process of professionalization that has occurred within psychology. (pp. 14-16)
    
20. What is cognition? Which individuals were important in the development of cognitive psychology? Describe the fundamental beliefs shared by cognitive psychologists. (pp. 16-17)
    
21. Who was Donald Hebb? Describe his contributions to psychology. Define “cell assembly.”
    (p. 17)
    
22. Specify why Western psychology has not had much focus on diverse cultures in the past. Define “ethnocentrism.” Why has interest in cross-cultural psychology increased in contemporary psychology? (pp. 18-19)
    
23. Define “evolutionary psychology.” Explain how evolutionary psychology accounts for differences in spatial ability between men and women. Identify the criticisms made about evolutionary psychology. (pp. 19-20)
    
24. Define “psychology.” Describe the kinds of work psychologists do in contemporary society. (p. 21)
    
25. Specify and briefly describe the seven major research areas in modern psychology. (p. 24, Figure 1.6)
    
26. Identify and briefly describe the four areas of specialization within applied psychology. Distinguish between clinical psychology and psychiatry. (pp. 24-25, Figure 1.7)
    
27. Identify and describe the three themes related to psychology as a field of study. Define “empiricism.” Explain how empiricism demands skepticism. (pp. 26-28)
    
28. Identify and describe the four themes related to psychology's subject matter. (pp. 28-30)
29. Discuss three important considerations in designing a program to encourage effective studying. (pp. 31-33)
    Comment: This section contains a number of good suggestions about studying. Weiten and McCann (2007) correctly emphasize the importance of a study environment that is free of distractions. You may also find it useful to create a pleasant place to study. This should be a place that has adequate lighting and is free of unpleasant odours, where your books, notebooks, pens, and pencils are within easy reach. If you are working at a computer, you will benefit from ergonomically correct placement of your desk, computer, monitor, keyboard, mouse, and even your chair, including arm supports. You might wish to place motivational quotes nearby should you be tempted to stop studying before you have achieved your study session goals.
    
30. Describe the SQ3R method and what makes it effective. (p. 33)
    Comment: I (Lyle Grant) came across the SQ3R method of study as a graduate student in the 1970s and did an experiment in which I and some colleagues studied its effectiveness (Grant, Keenan and Hursh, 1980). Although I was initially skeptical about whether the method has any usefulness, my data showed that students using the method did better on unit quizzes than when they simply read and reread the material.
    
31. Identify and describe the tips that Weiten and McCann (2007) offer for test-taking, including their general tips and their more specific tips for taking multiple-choice and essay exams. (pp. 34-35)
    
32. Define “critical thinking.” Describe the skills exhibited by critical thinkers. (pp. 36-37)